The complement system acts in conjunction with other immunological systems of the body to defend against intrusion of cellular and viral pathogens. There are at least 25 complement proteins, which are found as a complex collection of plasma proteins and membrane cofactors. The plasma proteins make up about 10% of the globulins in vertebrate serum. Complement components achieve their immune defensive functions by interacting in a series of intricate but precise enzymatic cleavage and membrane binding events. The resulting complement cascade leads to the production of products with opsonic, immunoregulatory, and lytic functions. A concise summary of the biologic activities associated with complement activation is provided, for example, in The Merck Manual, 16th Edition.
The complement cascade can progress via the classical pathway (CP), the lectin pathway, or the alternative pathway (AP). The lectin pathway is typically initiated with binding of mannose-binding lectin (MBL) to high mannose substrates. The AP can be antibody independent, and can be initiated by certain molecules on pathogen surfaces. The CP is typically initiated by antibody recognition of, and binding to, an antigenic site on a target cell. These pathways converge at the C3 convertase—the point where complement component C3 is cleaved by an active protease to yield C3a and C3b.
The AP C3 convertase is initiated by the spontaneous hydrolysis of complement component C3, which is abundant in the plasma in the blood. This process, also known as “tickover,” occurs through the spontaneous cleavage of a thioester bond in C3 to form C3i or C3(H2O). Tickover is facilitated by the presence of surfaces that support the binding of activated C3 and/or have neutral or positive charge characteristics (e.g., bacterial cell surfaces). This formation of C3(H2O) allows for the binding of plasma protein Factor B, which in turn allows Factor D to cleave Factor B into Ba and Bb. The Bb fragment remains bound to C3 to form a complex containing C3(H2O)Bb—the “fluid-phase” or “initiation” C3 convertase. Although only produced in small amounts, the fluid-phase C3 convertase can cleave multiple C3 proteins into C3a and C3b and results in the generation of C3b and its subsequent covalent binding to a surface (e.g., a bacterial surface). Factor B bound to the surface-bound C3b is cleaved by Factor D to thus form the surface-bound AP C3 convertase complex containing C3b,Bb. (See, e.g., Müller-Eberhard (1988) Ann Rev Biochem 57:321-347.)
The AP C5 convertase—(C3b)2,Bb—is formed upon addition of a second C3b monomer to the AP C3 convertase. (See, e.g., Medicus et al. (1976) J Exp Med 144:1076-1093 and Fearon et al. (1975) J Exp Med 142:856-863.) The role of the second C3b molecule is to bind C5 and present it for cleavage by Bb. (See, e.g., Isenman et al. (1980) J Immunol 124:326-331.) The AP C3 and C5 convertases are stabilized by the addition of the trimeric protein properdin as described in, e.g., Medicus et al. (1976), supra. However, properdin binding is not required to form a functioning alternative pathway C3 or C5 convertase. See, e.g., Schreiber et al. (1978) Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 75: 3948-3952 and Sissons et al. (1980) Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 77: 559-562.
The CP C3 convertase is formed upon interaction of complement component C1, which is a complex of C1q, C1r, and C1s, with an antibody that is bound to a target antigen (e.g., a microbial antigen). The binding of the C1q portion of C1 to the antibody-antigen complex causes a conformational change in C1 that activates C1r. Active C1r then cleaves the C1-associated C1s to thereby generate an active serine protease. Active C1s cleaves complement component C4 into C4b and C4a. Like C3b, the newly generated C4b fragment contains a highly reactive thiol that readily forms amide or ester bonds with suitable molecules on a target surface (e.g., a microbial cell surface). C1s also cleaves complement component C2 into C2b and C2a. The complex formed by C4b and C2a is the CP C3 convertase, which is capable of processing C3 into C3a and C3b. The CP C5 convertase—C4b,C2a,C3b—is formed upon addition of a C3b monomer to the CP C3 convertase. See, e.g., Miller-Eberhard (1988), supra and Cooper et al. (1970) J Exp Med 132:775-793.
In addition to its role in C3 and C5 convertases, C3b also functions as an opsonin through its interaction with complement receptors present on the surfaces of antigen-presenting cells such as macrophages and dendritic cells. The opsonic function of C3b is generally considered to be one of the most important anti-infective functions of the complement system. Patients with genetic lesions that block C3b function are prone to infection by a broad variety of pathogenic organisms, while patients with lesions later in the complement cascade sequence, i.e., patients with lesions that block C5 functions, are found to be more prone only to Neisseria infection, and then only somewhat more prone.
The AP and CP C5 convertases cleave C5, which is a 190 kDa beta globulin found in normal human serum at approximately 75 μg/ml (0.4 μM). C5 is glycosylated, with about 1.5-3 percent of its mass attributed to carbohydrate. Mature C5 is a heterodimer of a 999 amino acid 115 kDa alpha chain that is disulfide linked to a 655 amino acid 75 kDa beta chain. C5 is synthesized as a single chain precursor protein product of a single copy gene (Haviland et al. (1991) J Immunol 146:362-368). The cDNA sequence of the transcript of this gene predicts a secreted pro-C5 precursor of 1658 amino acids along with an 18 amino acid leader sequence (see, e.g., U.S. Pat. No. 6,355,245).
The pro-C5 precursor is cleaved after amino acids 655 and 659, to yield the beta chain as an amino terminal fragment (amino acid residues +1 to 655 of the above sequence) and the alpha chain as a carboxyl terminal fragment (amino acid residues 660 to 1658 of the above sequence), with four amino acids (amino acid residues 656-659 of the above sequence) deleted between the two.
C5a is cleaved from the alpha chain of C5 by either alternative or classical C5 convertase as an amino terminal fragment comprising the first 74 amino acids of the alpha chain (i.e., amino acid residues 660-733 of the above sequence). Approximately 20 percent of the 11 kDa mass of C5a is attributed to carbohydrate. The cleavage site for convertase action is at, or immediately adjacent to, amino acid residue 733 of the above sequence. A compound that would bind at, or adjacent, to this cleavage site would have the potential to block access of the C5 convertase enzymes to the cleavage site and thereby act as a complement inhibitor. A compound that binds to C5 at a site distal to the cleavage site could also have the potential to block C5 cleavage, for example, by way of steric hindrance-mediated inhibition of the interaction between C5 and the C5 convertase. A compound, in a mechanism of action consistent with that of the tick saliva complement inhibitor OmCI, may also prevent C5 cleavage by reducing flexibility of the C345C domain of the alpha chain of C5, which reduces access of the C5 convertase to the cleavage site of C5. See, e.g., Fredslund et al. (2008) Nat Immunol 9(7):753-760.
C5 can also be activated by means other than C5 convertase activity. Limited trypsin digestion (see, e.g., Minta and Man (1997) J Immunol 119:1597-1602 and Wetsel and Kolb (1982) J Immunol 128:2209-2216) and acid treatment (Yamamoto and Gewurz (1978) J Immunol 120:2008 and Damerau et al. (1989) Molec Immunol 26:1133-1142) can also cleave C5 and produce active C5b.
Cleavage of C5 releases C5a, a potent anaphylatoxin and chemotactic factor, and leads to the formation of the lytic terminal complement complex, C5b-9. C5a and C5b-9 also have pleiotropic cell activating properties, by amplifying the release of downstream inflammatory factors, such as hydrolytic enzymes, reactive oxygen species, arachidonic acid metabolites and various cytokines.
The first step in the formation of the terminal complement complex involves the combination of C5b with C6, C7, and C8 to form the C5b-8 complex at the surface of the target cell. Upon the binding of the C5b-8 complex with several C9 molecules, the membrane attack complex (MAC, C5b-9, terminal complement complex—TCC) is formed. When sufficient numbers of MACs insert into target cell membranes the openings they create (MAC pores) mediate rapid osmotic lysis of the target cells. Lower, non-lytic concentrations of MACs can produce other effects. In particular, membrane insertion of small numbers of the C5b-9 complexes into endothelial cells and platelets can cause deleterious cell activation. In some cases activation may precede cell lysis.
As mentioned above, C3a and C5a are anaphylatoxins. These activated complement components can trigger mast cell degranulation, which releases histamine from basophils and mast cells, and other mediators of inflammation, resulting in smooth muscle contraction, increased vascular permeability, leukocyte activation, and other inflammatory phenomena including cellular proliferation resulting in hypercellularity. C5a also functions as a chemotactic peptide that serves to attract pro-inflammatory granulocytes to the site of complement activation.
C5a receptors are found on the surfaces of bronchial and alveolar epithelial cells and bronchial smooth muscle cells. C5a receptors have also been found on eosinophils, mast cells, monocytes, neutrophils, and activated lymphocytes.
While a properly functioning complement system provides a robust defense against infecting microbes, inappropriate regulation or activation of complement has been implicated in the pathogenesis of a variety of disorders including, e.g., rheumatoid arthritis (RA); lupus nephritis; asthma; ischemia-reperfusion injury; atypical hemolytic uremic syndrome (aHUS); dense deposit disease (DDD); paroxysmal nocturnal hemoglobinuria (PNH); macular degeneration (e.g., age-related macular degeneration (AMD)); hemolysis, elevated liver enzymes, and low platelets (HELLP) syndrome; thrombotic thrombocytopenic purpura (TTP); spontaneous fetal loss; Pauci-immune vasculitis; epidermolysis bullosa; recurrent fetal loss; multiple sclerosis (MS); traumatic brain injury; and injury resulting from myocardial infarction, cardiopulmonary bypass and hemodialysis. (See, e.g., Holers et al. (2008) Immunological Reviews 223:300-316.) Inhibition of complement (e.g., inhibition of: terminal complement formation, C5 cleavage, or complement activation) has been demonstrated to be effective in treating several complement-associated disorders both in animal models and in humans. See, e.g., Rother et al. (2007) Nature Biotechnology 25(11):1256-1264; Wang et al. (1996) Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 93:8563-8568; Wang et al. (1995) Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 92:8955-8959; Rinder et al. (1995) J Clin Invest 96:1564-1572; Kroshus et al. (1995) Transplantation 60:1194-1202; Homeister et al. (1993) J Immunol 150:1055-1064; Weisman et al. (1990) Science 249:146-151; Amsterdam et al. (1995) Am J Physiol 268:H448-H457; and Rabinovici et al. (1992) J Immunol 149:1744 1750.